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The causes of Cancer, The Effects of Cancer, The Cure of Cancer

Posted by Uğur Parmak on May 17, 2010 in Genel

 

Table of Contents:

 

 

 

 

Abstract

 

1.Introduction

            1.1. Backgorund Informatin
            1.2. Purpose of the report
            1.3. Statement of the problem
2.Methodology
3.Findings
            3.1. The Causes of Cancer
                        3.1.1. Genetic Factors of Cancer
                        3.1.2. Enviromental Factors of Cancer

            3.2. The effects of Cancer
                        3.2.1. Physical Effects of Cancer

                        3.2.2. Psychological Effects of Cancer

 

            3.3. The Cure of Cancer

                        3.3.1. Scientific Cures of Cancer
                        3.3.2. Alternative Cures of Cancer

4.Conclusion

 

5.Bibliography


 

Abstract
This report aims to bring a thorough analysis of the cures of cancer. In order to explore the sucject first, the causes of cancer which are genetic factors and environmental factors are analyzed. Secondly, the effects of cancer on human body, physcial and daily life are presented. Finally, the way of the causes of cancer which are scientific cures and alternative cures are presented. It has been found out that cancer may appear for some kind of causes. They can be genetic and environmental, Genetic factors are inherited from the ancestors or there were a mutation in the cancerous cell when they born. Unlike the genetic factors, environment can affect the cells, environmental factors, which are smoking, ultraviolet radiation, sunlight, may broke the cells and make them cancerous. On the other hand, the research study on the effects of cancer. Cancerous cells affect people negatively. There may be wounds on the skin, talking with low tone, flowing hair. In the light of the research, it is found that despite the causes and effects of cancer, cancer is treated by scientific cures and alternative cures. Chemotherapy, radiotherapy and gene therapy are mostly used fort he scientific treatment of cancer. The alternative cures of cancer are increasing in popularity by methods of acupuncture, diet, officinal plants(herbs) and yoga.

 

 

1.Introduction

1.1. Background

Cancer is occurring in organisms and cells growing uncontrolled malignant tumors.  Cancer cells often resulting from the continuous replication control. The cause of cancer is not known precisely depends on two types of factors. .(Gök M., Göç Ö., n.d., p.1)  Genetic factors on which, their way of life, age, gender and family history based and enviromental factors which are smoking, alcohol, remaining under the sun for a long time, exposuring to X-rays excessively.(Gök M., Göç Ö., n.d., p.2) According to Baskent University(n.d.), the symptoms of cancer are that

non-normal uterus and anus bleeding or discharge from, anywhere in the breast or body swelling and stiffness of the resulting, long-term hoarseness and cough, growth occurred in warts, bleeding, color change, making changes in large and small ablution, difficulty in swallowing and indigestion.(baskent.edu.tr)

Moreover, cancer affects human body, psychology and daily life negatively. There can be wounds on skin, they disturb patient’s psychology and he/she can stop to go outside or he/she does not go anywhere. It is one of the worrying effects of cancer on a patient. There is a very important step of avoidance from the cancer. It’s name is early diagnosis of cancer. It increases the cance of treatment, facilities the treatment, reduces the costs of treatment, prevents loss of tissue and organ, does not leave injury,saves life.(n.d.,kanser-tedavisi.com) Cancer can be treated by two different ways which are scientific ways and alternative ways. Scientific cures are Chemotherapy, it means tumor is treated by medication, Radiotherapy it means destroy cancer cells with radioactive beams is assumed, cancer vaccines, gene therapy and alternative cures which are acupuncture, diet, officinal plants(herbs), yoga.( Gök M., Göç Ö., n.d., p.20)

 

1.2 Purpose of the report
This report aims to analyze the causes of cancer by enlightening its classes which are genetic and environmental factors. What is more, it also tries to spotlight the effects of cancer which are on body, psychological and daily life. At the end of the research, it tries to explain the cures of cancer by scientificly and alternatively.

1.3 Statement of the Problem

Cancer is an illness which results in death and it is diffusing rapidly through world. In the light of the research, it is found that despite the causes and effects of cancer, cancer is treated by scientific cures and alternative cures. Chemotherapy, radiotherapy and gene therapy are mostly used fort he scientific treatment of cancer. The alternative cures of cancer are increasing in popularity by methods of acupuncture, diet, officinal plants(herbs) and yoga.

 

2.Methods

This report aims to evidence that cancer can be treated despite the causes and the effects of cancer. The causes of cancer will be analyzed by The Article of The Genetic Factors of Cancer. The causes of cancer will also be analyzed by Genetic Factors in Cancer Illness.  In addition, in order to find out the effects of cancer will be researched with the help of The World Cancer Report 2003. It will also be analyzed by The Article of The Effects of Cancer Survivorship on Families and Caregivers. Finally, the cures of cancer are also going to be analyzed by Holistic, Alternative Cancer Cures. It will be also researched by The Article of Cancer Treatment. 

 

3. Findings

3.1. The causes of cancer

                        3.1.1. The genetic factor of cancer

Despite all prevention, cancer can ocur in some cells and sometimes we can not stop it. The factors which stop us not to prevent cancer is called “genetic factor”. “Hereditary cancer is a cancer that has developed as a result of a gene mutation passed down from a parent to a child”(n.d., cancer.about.com). To illustrate, there should be a genetically mutationed cell. It is just a normal cell. Sometimes people are born with these mutationed cells. It is not definite that they will get cancer. But if a mutation started, the mutationed cells can be turned to be carcinoges cells. This mutation makes easy the ancestral cell to be a carcinoges cell(n.d., cancerhelp.org.uk). The other factor which can not be changed is the immune system. People who have problems with their immune systems are more likely to get cancer. This group has people who “had organ transplants and take drugs to suppress their immune systems to stop organ rejection. Have HIV or AIDS born with rare medical syndromes which affect their immunity” (n.d., cancerhelp.org.uk). Consequently, it is obvious that cancer is occured by genetic factors which are genetic failures and physical failures. People can not change these causes by medicene or something else.

                        3.1.2. The Environmental factors of cancer

The other causes of cancer is enviroment. People live on their environment. Environment is so important for people’ health. Sometimes environment can cause big disease whose results are death. Cancer is the most known disease whose result is death. Using tobacco is the most known cause of death. Each year, more than 180,000 people die from cancer that is related to tobacco use. Using tobacco products or being around tobacco smoke places increases the risk of cancer. Smokers are more likely than nonsmokers to have cancer of the lung, larynx (voice box), mouth, esophagus, bladder, kidney, throat, stomach, pancreas, or cervix. The other environmental factor is sunlight (n.d., medicinenet.com,p.1). “Ultraviolet (UV) radiation comes from the sun, sunlamps, and tanning booths. It causes early aging of the skin and skin damage that can lead to skin cancer”(n.d., medicinenet.com,p.1). Doctors warn people about limit their time under the midday sun. They also warn people that they should protect themselves from the UV which refelected by sand, water, snow and ice. They should use sunscreen because sunscreen prevents skin cancer (n.d., medicinenet.com,p.3). Therefore, smoking and sunlights(UV) may cause cancer directly. They never can change because they destroy the cells deeply and permanently.

 3.2. The Effects of Cancer

                        3.2.1. Physical Effects of Cancer

Cancer has serious effects on people body which they make patients feel bad and sick. It breaks their immune system and the effects afflict them so bad. When the effects are analyzed, the first physical effects of cancer is feeling sick (Nausea). Cancer may cause nausea (feeling sick)  or vomiting (being sick). Nausea may be caused by various things which are “radiotherapy, chemotherapy, constipation, some painkillers, infection, pain, a high level of calcium in the blood (hypercalcaemia), irritation of the stomach lining, blockage of the bowel.” (1 July 2007,macmillan.org.uk). The second effect of cancer or its treatment is tiredness (Fatigue). Fatigue means that people feel themselves so tired and so exhausted all the time. It is one of the most common or one of the most difficult effect of cancer for people with cancer. It may be happened for the treatment or progress of cancer. The effects of tiredness are “difficulty doing everyday tasks,having no energy, feeling weak, difficulty thinking or concentrating,becoming forgetful, dizziness or light-headedness, difficulty sleeping, a lower sex drive, feeling irritable, emotional and tearful.”  (1 July 2007,macmillan.org.uk). The last but not the least effect of cancer is sleep disturbances. Most people who got cancer have trouble sleeping during their illness. This may be caused by  anxiety and fears about the future. They may find that the treatment interferes with their normal sleep patterns, or their sleep may be disturbed because they have to stay in hospital, where it may be noisy. Pain can affect sleep, but it can usually be dealt with by good pain control (1 July 2007,macmillan.org.uk).

 

 

3.2.2. Psychological Effects of Cancer

Human psychology is affected by all the things in people’ life and pyschology is the biggest factor of people health situation. It can cure a patient or it can cause illness to go wrong. Cancer disease collapses the patients’ psychology worse than their physics. This illness first destroys the psychology of the patient then goes into the physics to hurt. The first effects of cancer on people psychology is depression. It’s not unusual to have times when you feel very low after a diagnosis of cancer, and during or after treatment. According to an England research company(1 September 2007),

Many people feel physically and emotionally exhausted from the treatment, and this can lower their mood. However, for some people affected by cancer their low mood may continue or get worse and they may need specialist help or treatment. Some people find that their sadness gives way to a situation where their mood is low most of the time for several weeks or more, and they are depressed. (macmillan.org.uk).

Depression and cancer are directly releated with each others. Depression affects the progress of cure of cancer negatively. Unlike depression, feeling good makes the progress of cure beter. The second effect of cancer is loss of self-esteem. Cancer can make themselves feel very week. It may break their independence on their life. They can feel tired and stressed. They may not find themselves enough strong to do the things which they were doing in their healthy life properly (1 September 2008, macmillan.org.uk).

3.3. The Cure of Cancer

                        3.3.1. The Scientific Cures of Cancer

Cancer treatment changes depend on the type of cancer, placement, stage, people’s general health status and other factors.(n.d., roche.com.tr) The first scientific cure of cancer is Chemotherapy. Chemotherapy means tumour is treated by drugs. It is a very important part of the tumour treatment with surgery and radiation therapy. Tumour cells are killed or tried to stop tumour growth with Chemotherapy. Sometimes one, sometimes several drugs are given in various ways. The most common side effects are nausea, vomiting, alopecia and fatigue .    ( Gök M., Göç Ö., n.d., p.20).  The second scientific cure of cancer is Radiotherapy. Radiotherapy is that, Radioactive rays are trying to destroy tumour cells.
“Co-60 or through devices such as linear accelerators from the outside of the body (external radiation therapy) or into body cavities or tissues through the placement of radioactive material inside (internal radiation therapy) is performed” (baskent.edu.tr). Normal cells within the treatment area is affected by radioactive rays but they have the ability which, can repair themselves, so this effect is temporary for the normal cells (baskent.edu.tr). The side effects of Radiotherapy are “skin irritation, difficulty swallowing, dry mouth, nausea, diarrhea, hair loss and energy loss” (baskent.edu.tr).  Chemotherapy and Radiotherapy are the most known cures of cancer in scientific platform. However, there is one more new therapy whose name is Gene therapy. It have been started to use in scientific platform as well as Chemotherapy and Radiotherapy. If the genes which grows the cells work more, or  they work less,or their balance is broken for any reason, cells get bigger and bigger permanently. The aim of the Gene therapy is that keeping that balance right. (baskent.edu.tr)

 

 

3.3.2. The Alternative Cures of Cancer

Acupuncture is the practice of inserting thin needles into specific body points to improve health.(n.d., nlm.nih.gov). According to the Researchers(n.d.)  

 In the United States, the best-known type involves putting hair-thin, metallic needles in your skin. Research shows that acupuncture reduces nausea and vomiting after surgery and chemotherapy. It can also relieve pain. Researchers don’t fully understand how acupuncture works. It might aid the activity of your body’s pain-killing chemicals. It also might affect how you release chemicals that regulate blood pressure and flow.(nlm.nih.gov)

The other alternative cure of cancer is diet. It can be summurized under seven golden rule. One, People should be as leen as possible. It means they should keep themselves fit. Two, people should be active. It means people should exercise more than 60 minutes with moderately or more than 30 minutes vigorously. Three, Avoid energy-dense foods and sugary drinks. They should avoid eating fatty foods like fast foods and processed foods and also avoid from sugary drinks like cola. Four, eat plant-based foods. “Aim for 5 servings of non-starchy fruits and vegetables every day (potato, yam, sweet potato, and cassava don’t count). Eat only limited amounts of refined grains like white bread and pasta. Instead, include legumes or whole grains in every meal” (n.d., healthcastle.com). Five, limit red meat and processed meat. Six, limit alcohol. Men should not drink more than two drinks a day. Women should not drink more than one drinks a day. The last rule is limit salty foods because salty foods are probably a cause of stomach cancer.

4. Conclusion

In this report,  the cures of cancer are searched. First of all, there are two various causes of cancer which are genetic and environmental factors. Secondly, It is shown that there are also two various effects of cancer which are physically and psychologically.Thirdly, the cure of cancer is analyzed and it is found out that there are two kind of cure is used in cancer treatment. They are scientific cures and alternative cures.

Finally, Cancer is a serious illness and it is ended with death. It is releated with so many factors and this illness affects people in their whole life. People with cancer, is starting to live with cancer and its effets in their daily life. However, cancer will disappear with the development in technology and science.


 

5. Bibliography :

 

Electronic Sources:

Kanser Araştırması. Retrieved April 07, 2010 from
http://baskent.edu.tr/

Cancer Research UK Company . Retrieved April 07, 2010 from
http://cancerhelp.org.uk/

Side Effects of Cancer. Retrieved April 07, 2010 from
http://cancer.about.com/

Diet and Cancer. Retrieved April 21, 2010 from
http://healthcastle.com/

Cancer Information. Retrieved April 21, 2010 from
http://macmillan.org.uk/

Enviromental Factors of Cancer. Retrieved April 21, 2010 from
http://medicinenet.com/

The genetic factors in cancer development and their implications for cancer prevention and detection. Retrieved April 21, 2010 from
http://nlm.nih.gov/

What is Chemotherapy?. Retrieved April 21, 2010 from
http://roche.com.tr/

 
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About computers and their technologies

Posted by Uğur Parmak on Oca 15, 2010 in Teknoloji & Bilişim
  1. imagesList two tasks of an operating system and name two operating systems.
    -         Memory Management Disk and File Management  ,   Hard disk / Processors
  2. Why is it especially useful to have the ability to change hardware profiles for laptops?
    -         Because, a hardware profile lets you start the computer with different hardware configurations and this is most useful on laptops
  3. How can you restore your system to a previous point, after a crash, in Windows XP?
    -         The System Restore tab lets you disable/enable and configure the new System Restore feature in Windows XP.When it’s enabled on one or more drives, Windows XP monitors the changes you make on your drives.It creates what is called a restore point.if a system crash is occurred, it can restore your data back to the restore point.You can turn on System Restore for all drives on your system or for individual drives.Note that turning off System Restore on the system drive (the drive on which the OS is installed) automatically turns it off on all drives. 
  4. What is the Windows Registry and how can you edit it in Windows XP? -         It is special congiguration database where windows configuration information is stored Windows XP has to implications that can be used to edit the Registry, REGEDIT and REGEDT 31. 
  5. What is the purpose of the HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG registry hive?
    -         It provides quick access to a number of commonly needed keys that are otherwise bried deep in the HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE structure.
  6. Where is the file PAGEFILE.SYS located, for Windows XP, and how can you see it?
    -         It is located in the root directory of the drive on which the OS file are installed to see the file in Windows Explorer, Folder Options must be configurated to hidden files.
  7. Name some key boot files for the Windows operating system.
    -         NTLDR, BOOT.INI, BOOTSECT.DOC, NTSDETECT.DOC, NTBOOTDD.SYS, NTOSKRNL.EXE-          
  8. How do you configure system files in Windows XP?
    -         MSCONFIG system_configuration. Tabs in the Windows XP version of  MSCONFIG.General. System, /ini , win.ini, startup boot.ini and services. The boot ini tab lets you modify the Boot.ini file and also specify other boot options. On the service tab, you can view the services installed on the system and their current status(running or stopped).
  9. Would you find MFT in FAT or in NTFS.
    -         I can find MFT in NTFS, because it is a part of  NTFS-          
  10. List the basic components of a PC.
    -         Motherboards, Processors, memory,storage devices,power supplies, display devices, input devices, adapter cards, parts and cables, cooling systems
  11. What are the components you can find on the motherboard?
    -         CPU, underlyin circuitry, explansion slots, video components, RAM slots, variety of other chip
  12. What are the functions of the Northbridge and the Southbridge?
    -         Northbridge: communications between the CPU,RAM,AGP or PCI Express and the southbridge.
    Southbridge: it also known as the I/O Controller Hub. Responsible for managing communications with the other expansion buses, such as PCI, USB and legacy buses          
  13. What are DIMM and RAMBUS?
    -         DIMM is 64 bit memory modules that are used as a package for the SDRAM family RAMBUS(RIMM)
  14. What is better quality, true component video or S video?
    -Svideo is a component video technology that combines the two chromianonce signals into one video quality not quite as high as that of true component video. 
  15. What is a port?
    -         It is a generic name for any connector an a computer into a which cable can be plugged.
  16. What are the main differences between a laptop motherboard and a PC motherboard?
    -         Primary differences between a L.M and a D.M; the lack of standarts, the much smaller form factor, It serves a lot of space.
  17. What are the characteristics of Bluetooth?
    -         Bluetooth signals are good only for about 30 feet.
    -         It isn’t designed for wireless networking; it is designed for wireless communication.
    -         It is fast and reliable transferring small amounts of data short distances
    -         It also uses little power comperad to cellular or WiFi options popular in cell phones, handheld computers and laptops.

 
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İngilizce röportaj, öğretmenle yapılmış ingilizce röportaj

Posted by Uğur Parmak on Oca 5, 2010 in Öğretmenlik

imagesQUESTIONS 1

  1. What has been your greatest achievement as a teacher?
  2. What has been your greatest disappointment as a teacher?
  3. Have you ever had a cooperative activity with a teacher from another subject area? If yes, what was it? If no, would you like to do it?
  4. What other disciplines would be appropriate to work on a common theme? Do you think such a project would be beneficial for you and the students? If yes, how?
  5. In your view, what are the greatest challanges facing education right now?
  6. What advice do you have for someone like me who has chosen (or least considering) a career in teaching?

ANSWERS

  1. It has been teaching students who are now holding high level positions in their professions. Knowing that I have a share in their success is really motivating and to be proud of. 
  2. To see some of my students killed during unrest in the university was really sad.  Having unmotivated, disinterested students in a classroom is the other disappointing situation.  
  3. As English teachers, we are working with Spanish, Italian, German and French teachers to come up with an updated, better and more developed language teaching methods. How to organize our syllabi, activities to include every week and preparing the exams are our other common concerns. We have regular meetings to sort out our problems and create new visions.  
  4. Being language teachers, we now and then cooperate with the Translation Studies Department. Linguistic and ELT (English Language Teaching) is our common concern.  
  5. The challange is the unmotivated students. Especially this problem is more commonly seen in English courses. We can hardly find enthusiastic and eager students who want to enhance their skills in the language.  
  6. It would be to love your career and enjoy it.

QUESTIONS 2

  1. What has been your greatest achievement as a teacher?
  2. What has been your greatest disappointment as a teacher?
  3. Have you ever had a cooperative activity with a teacher from another subject area? If yes, what was it? If no, would you like to do it?
  4. What other disciplines would be appropriate to work on a common theme? Do you think such a project would be beneficial for you and the students? If yes, how?
  5. In your view, what are the greatest challanges facing education right now?
  6. What advice do you have for someone like me who has chosen (or least considering) a career in teaching?

ANSWERS   

  1. My having experienced teaching in a different culture is the best achievement. 
  2. Two disappointments: discussing that students are not interested in learning English, which is the core of my profession; and my fear of not being able to motivate the students enough. 
  3. During the seminars, we have interdisciplinary activities following the same strategy on how it works with the other field of interest. 
  4. Literature, history and philosophy. Not only because it is my discipline at university, but it is also because I can see something in common. 
  5. Motivation and new ideas to teaching strategies that would be adaptive to the new student profiles of the new generation. 
  6. Patience and hardwork. Always to be on the lookout for new strategies. Also to always consider student profiles in determining how to manage the class.

Etiketler:, , , ,

 
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Türkiyede öğretmenliğin zorlukları

Posted by Uğur Parmak on Ara 25, 2009 in Öğretmenlik

imagesCAWN0262

       Türk eğitim sistemi başlı başına sorunlarla dolu, en basitinden en kompleksine kadar bu eğitimin başlangıcı ilkokulda da böyle lisansınızı aldığınız üniversitelerde de böyle. Herkes kendini kurtarma peşinde bir şekilde. 3 Sebepten dolayı öğretmen olur ülkemizde insanlar 1. Haziran , 2.Temmuz, 3. Ağustos yüzünden. Bu 3 altın maddeyi kaldırsalar kimse öğretmen olmak istemez belkide. Öğretmenliğin, eğitmenliğin aslında bir mühendislikten, mimarlıktan ne kadar da güç bir meslek olduğunu anlayamaz kimse. O 3 madde yüzünden öğretmen olur insanlar. Bizim ülkemizde insanlar her zaman az kazanan, zor geçinen, çok bilen fakat alanı dar olan, kısıtlanmış, emeklerinin karşılığını alamayan insanları çok sever. Ünlü aktörlerimiz, sanatçılarımız, yazarlarımız, zanaatkarlarımız, çiftçilerimiz ve öğretmenlerimiz… Her zaman işini gerektiği gibi yapan insanlar gerektiği yerlerde değillerdir bizim ülkemizde. onlar çok sevilir, “öğretmenlik kutsaldır” mesela herkesin gözünde. Fakat yalnızca öğretmenler gününde alınan ufak bir hediye ile hatırlarız hep öğretmenleri veya tüm işini doğru yapanlar gibi ölünce okulların isimlerini değiştiririz hayattan göçtükten sonra onları kıymete bindiririz.

       Olması gerekenler olması yerlerde değil demiştim az önce bunu şöyle açıklayabilirim kendimce. Fen-Edebiyat veya Eğitim Fakültelerinden mezun olan öğretmenler (bu iki grubu bile karşı karşıya getirenler var) önce 1-2 yıl o tecrübesizlik ve toylukla doğuya veya illerin en ucra köşelerine yollanırlar tecrübe kazansın diye. En kötü şartlara dayanmalarını isterler, okula gelemeyen, gelse bile kişisel, ailesel v.s. gibi sıkıntılarından dolayı dersi dinleyemeyen veya asi, sorunlu çağlarına gelmiş öğrenci gruplarını yeni öğretmenlere verirler. Bunlar doğuya veya büyükşehirlerin dışına çıkmışlar daha büyük tehlike şehir içlerinde ilk yıllarını geçirenlerdir. bunlar ünlü liselerin, okulların sonuncu sınıflarına verilirler daima. örneğin daha yeni mezun olmuş bir öğretmen bir okula atanır ve buradaki yılların deneyimine sahip öğretmenler lise 3 veya 4 leri almak istemezler hiçbir zaman, onlar hep yeni öğretmenlere verilir daimi olarak. öğretmeni dinlemeyen, kendine rakip görmüş öğrencilerle uğraştırıp dururlar hep o toy öğretmenleri oysa bizim yılların tecrübesini almış öğretmenlerimiz hep arka plandadır. 1. sınıfları isterler onlar, daha okula yeni gelmiş, gözü açılmamış, laf söz dinleyen öğrenci gruplarını. bu çok büyük çarpıklık sonucunda ilk yılında öğretmenlikten istifa eden, 4-5 yıl boyunca lisans eğitimini aldığı mesleği yerine getiremeyen grupların oluşumuna sebep olur.

       Bu sözünü ettiğim kısacık durumu değiştirmeye kimsenin niyeti yok vede bu sistem böyle devam ettikçe, bir toplumu yetiştiren şekillendiren kişiler bu kadar ezildikçe ve bu çarpık sistemin içinde çalıştırıldıkça yeni parlak aydınlık ÖZGÜR bir gelecek bizi kesinlikle beklemiyor olacak ve başkaları tarafından yönetilen adaletimizle bu çarpıklık devam edecektir.

Etiketler:, , , , ,

 
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Differences between online course and traditional course , Distance learning , e-learning , uzaktan eğitim, uzaktan eğitimle geleneksel eğitim arasındaki farklar [ARAŞTIRMA , research, thesis, tez ]

Posted by Uğur Parmak on Ara 13, 2009 in Eğitim sistemleri

 e-learning

DOWNLOAD THIS THESIS
in your computer as a docx file

 

I.           Vision and Planning

         A.               Technical Differences

                       1.                 Instructional Design Process

                       2.                 Team Devolopment

        B.                Methodical Differences

                       1.                 Methods of Teaching

                       2.                 Methods of Assessment

II.                Implementation

        A.               Accesing Differences

                      1.                 Access to student population

        B.                Content

                     1.                 Content and Activity

 

 

       After the industrial revolution, technology has been developped rapidly and it took a big place in our life in business,social and education. Computers became too small,their costs decreased and they became portable machines. Everybody could afford to buy a computer  and they removed a lot of cause of complaint by using computer in their home easily. After the discovery of internet, everybody who use internet in their computer,came together in a small screen and distances disappeared and we came to do everything without stand up our places.Computer and Internet, especially, brought a facilitiy in education system nicely.Actually, it was a revolution for the next generations. Schools had online courses, e-learning or distance learning departments in their structures and they shaped their system according to this new technological system which brings all students in front of a screen easily but we can see differences between online course and traditional course.It is, therefore, the claim of this paper that there are two main differences between online course and traditional course, which are vision and planning and implementation.

       The first main difference between online course and traditional course is vision and planning.Firstly, online course and traditional course are different from their technics.The instructional design process is the process which teachers should utilize in the planning and preparation of instructional activities which will be shown during the course (Reigeluth, 1999).Although many of the steps of the instrucitional design process is the same in traditional or online course, “planning for instruction at a distance is a multi-faceted process” (Simonson, 2000). Unlike traditional design where lectures and content may be prepared the night before class, or the day of class, online instruction should be designed thoroughly. In addition, online course and traditional course are different in team devolopment. According to (Caroll-Barefield, Smith, Prince, & Campbell, 2005) “Transitioning from a traditional to online program is not cut-and-dry. It requires the cooperation of a team of educators, administrators, and designers”Even though the team process can be approached in various manners, (Levy, 2003)describes this process as an unbundling of responsibilities with experts taking responsibility for specific parts of the course design”.This development approach divides the work load into smaller pieces and allows for optimal development because each component is developed by a person with expertise in that area.Instructors remain the primary content leaders (Boettcher & Conrad, 1999)  of design teams and should work closely with the instructional designer to fashion activities that promote a student-centered enviroment. The instructional designer also acts as the Project manager, but focuses on “matching the learning goals and objectivies with the characteristics and lifestyles of students and with the constraints of the delivery enviroment” (Boettcher & Conrad, 1999). Other team members could consist of a reference specialist and technical support personel. These positions are essential in the online development process, but also play a particularly important role in the development of traditional courses also.

       Secondly, online course and traditional course are different from their methods.Whether teaching in the face-to-face environment or the online courseroom, instructors should give careful consideration to the epistemological principles that will provide the underlying foundation for their teaching (Gold, 2001). While each of the major foundations of education, behaviorism, cognitivism, or constructivism could be utilized in both environments (Liu, 2004), instructors should give careful consideration with respect to how instruction will be delivered in the online area. Learning theories are constantly evolving which suggests that no one theory is acceptable for all learning situations. Liu (2004) concludes that “behaviorist strategies can be used to teach facts (what); cognitive strategiest to teach the principles and processes (how); and constructivist strategies to teach the real-life and personal applications and contextual learning” (p. 1346). Newby-Fraser (2002) extends this by stating that “the strategies and techniques staff use in their FTF teaching remain vry relevant. ‘Good teaching, is good teaching’” (p. 1986). Nonetheless, “Teaching on the web is an art that can – and should – be informed by empirical research and sound pedagogical principles” (Wolfe, 2001). In addition to this,Whether teaching in the face-to-face enviroment or online, assessment is an essential aspect of the teaching learning process. (Verneil & Berge, 2000) support this and extend it by stating that “course subject matter assessment will be totally determined by the subject matter, teaching style, and the educational philosophy” (p. 18). There are many assessments that will work in both settings such as the following: essays, reflections, collaborative projects, individual projects, or discussion content. However, when traditional paper and pencil assessments are used in the online setting, issues of validity are often raised due to the fact that the examinations may not be proctored (Yang & Cornelious, 2005) To adress this concern, instructors should utilize authentic forms of assessment. (Mueller, 2002) describes authentic assessment as “a form of assessment in which students are asked to perform real-world tasks that demonstrate meaningful application of essential knowledge and skills”. (Yang & Cornelious, 2005) also supporn this by suggesting that “ a variety of performance assessments should be established by instructors for quality online instruction. These assessments should be aligned with course objectives and subject aims, and should enhance students’ vocational and disciplinary skills” (p. 10). Nonetheless, paper and pencil type exams that are prevalent in the traditional classroom, such as multiple-choice, true or false, or matching may still be valuable from a student perspective online; students can take the exams onlien to see if they are mastering the basic content and receive immediate feedback through the assessment tool.

       The second main difference between online course and traditional course is implementation. Online course and traditional course are different from their accessing. Probably the biggest difference between face-to-face and online delivery methods is the population that can be included in each type of instruction. In order for students to participate in the face-to-face classroom, that is to actually be present, geographic limitations begin to present themselves. Students must reside in an area that they can physically drive, within reasonable time limits, to the actual campus for their classes. These classes are usually held on specific days and times which often present compications for non-traditional or graduate level students who often have outside responsibilities such as employement or families.In the online environment, classes can be held synchronously or asynchronously without the travel commitments that are necessary in the face-to-face approach  (Nelson, 2009). This removal of travel and the necessity to be at a physical location at a specific time opens the doors for many students who cannot participate in a traditional form to strive for advancement or higher degrees (Willis & Cifuentes, 2005). Not only does online learning improve the ability for students locally to participate, online courses open the calssroom to the entire world, or at least to anyone that has Access to an Internet connection. This global classroom allows for students from many countries, cultures, or races tos hare their thoughts and experiences while participating in the online classroom (Nelson, 2009). “ Web-based instruction (WBI) brings courses to individuals and groups who might not otherwise have Access to them” (Willis & Cifuentes, 2005). Geographic positions and situations are not important in online courses, you can access the information, which is kept in online platform, whenever and wherever you want but in face-to-face learning, your geographic position and stiuation should be well and there should not be any problem to go to school regularly.

       The last but not the least difference between online course and traditional course is content.It is important to reiterate that creating an online course does not simply mean uploading all traditional files to the course management system. However, instrucotrs may want to revise the materials that are used in their traditional courses by rewriting content in a conversational style.The content will also need to be very comprehensive because there will be no face-to-face discussion of the material; discussions usually take place in writing in the discussion forum section of the course. (Liu, 2004) supports this by stating that “ providing clear instruction is the top issue in course design” (p. 1349). However, this may be an optimal time to add new materials and resources to the course. “During the redesign of the course, it is a good idea to begin the search for digital and online resources as early as possible” (Boettcher & Conrad, 1999). These new resources may determine or influence the design of instructional activities; there fore, it is advisable to identify them as early as possible in this phase. Inıtially, most courses will require learners to read and research specific concepts fort he unit being covered; this activity is considered interaction between the learner and the content. If following a constructivist approach or designing based upon adult learning principles, a focus question or problem should be provided so that students have a guiding idea for their inquiry.In order to help the claim develop, instructors should provide posting dates or expectations ahead of time. Students should post to the forum early in the week; this allows others to read the post and respond back to the author, creating the online dialogue (Nelson, 2009). Additionally, to asist learners in focusing on key issues, instructors should develop rubrics (Caroll-Barefield, Smith, Prince, & Campbell, 2005) and upload them to the courseroom. These rubrics should identify the key objectives fort he discussion forum as well as the qualitative and tuantitative nature that will be used in the evaluation process (Nelson, 2009).Furthermore, instructors will need to consider how to manage the synchronous activity. Most content management systems provide chat tools that allow instructors to control who can type at any given time. If learners wish to speak, they are required to click on an icon of a hand to simulate that they are raising their hand (Nelson, 2009). If using this approach fort he first time, it is generally a good idea for instructors to practice with colleagues before attempting a live session with their students. Finally, collaborative activities can be very beneficial in the online courseroom. Some online programs design activities where students work together to research a specific course topic. (Nelson, 2009) supports it “ after the topic has been examined, the collaborative group constructs a paper that is then presented to the rest of the class. Instructors can extend this activity by having the group write a series of questions on the topic, post them to a discussion forum, and then moderate the postings to that forum”.

       In conclusion, online courses brought so many advantages to education system through the world but there are differences between this new system and the altruistic system. Their points of view to the education is different and their system which they are following is so different with each other in real time. Distance learning has abolished the traditional courses even in our education system in Turkey and many of the universties is changing their system according to this new system. Even, it should be supported by the government and corporations because supporting education system in a country brings richness and affluent society.

 

 References

Boettcher, J. V., & Conrad, R. (1999). Faculty guide for moving teaching and learning to the web. Mission Viejo.

Caroll-Barefield, A., Smith, S. P., Prince, L. H., & Campbell, C. A. (2005). Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration (8). 12 11, 2009 tarihinde http://westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/spring81/covington81.htm adresinden alındı

Gold, S. (2001). Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 5. 12 11, 2009 tarihinde http://www.aln.org/publications/jaln/v5n1/v5n1_gold.asp adresinden alındı

Levy, S. (2003). Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 6. 12 11, 2009 tarihinde http://www.westga.edu.tr/~distance/ojdla/spring61/levy61.htm adresinden alındı

Liu, Y. (2004). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education, 2004.

Mueller, J. (2002). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education. 12 11, 2009 tarihinde http://jonathan.mueller.facult.noctrl.edu/toolbox/whatisit.htm adresinden alındı

Nelson, T. E. (2009). The Conversion of traditional course material to the online learning format.

Newbey-Fraser, J. (2002). Associaton for the Advancement of Computing in Education, 2002.

Reigeluth. (1999). What is instructional design theory and how is it changing? Mahwah.

Simonson. (2000). Teaching and learning at a distance. Upper Saddle River.

Verneil, M. d., & Berge, Z. L. (2000). Educational Technology. Upper Saddle River.

Willis, J. M., & Cifuentes, L. (2005). Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 13.

Wolfe, C. R. (2001). Learning and teaching on the world wide web. San Diego: Academic Press.

Yang, Y., & Cornelious, L. (2005). Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 8. 12 11, 2009 tarihinde http://www.westga.edu/%7Edistance/ojdla/spring81/yang/81.htm adresinden alındı

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Modern view vs Post-modern view ( Modern bakış ve post modern bakış )

Posted by Uğur Parmak on Ara 8, 2009 in Öğrenme

imagesCA24AJF9The first characteristic of Modern view is its constancy.It means, people who have a modern view,think modern view is unchangeable,thus it bases on scientific methods.Science is the determining factor in modern view.Proved and certain things have a big role in modern view so they certainly can not change person by person.they are accepted views and nobody try to change it because people agreed with it.For Example,Newton’s gravitional force is accepted by everybody and nobody argues about it because it is proved and it became a theory and there are a lot of scientific methods in Newton’s gravitional force.On the contrary, inequality is the basis characteristic of post-modern view.Science,scientific methods,arguments do not have any importance in post-modern view.Contex is the most important thing in post-modern view. Everybody can receive different things from the same thing.The contex of the thing and the point view of learner to the thing are important in post-modern view. For example, there is an art exhibition and there are a lot of pictures in the art exhibition.The artlovers,who visits the art exhibition,  feels different things on the same picture.someone says it is nice and it makes me feel happy or someone can say it is so dark and it makes me unhappy.this is the inequality of post-modern view.The second characteristic of modern view is analyzable.Scientific things,which are the bases of modern view, can be taken to pieces and   can be analyzed.it means you can use inductive reasoning method. You can reach the whole from the pieces and you can see the all of the steps of dividing then you have an certain idea about the thing which be analyzed. However,you can not analyze the thing or can not command about the thing in post-modern view, because it is bounded by time, space and perspective.it is made by implications. There is no common idea about one thing.In modern view, you can question a step of proving but you can not do it in post-modern view because feels,implications,differences make one thing in post-modern view. It is possible to question a thing in post-modern view.It creates information pollution.

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Learning Disabilities, Laws of learning organizations

Posted by Uğur Parmak on Ara 2, 2009 in Öğrenme

images“The enemy is out there” it means, we start to find a responsible, when we make a mistake. We fear from meet with our errors.  People do not look the issue wholly, we seperate the issue into small parts and we give the part of responsible of our mistakes to somebody else. For example, teachers never see a student who say  “I failed in the exam because I did not work enough for that lesson or I did not listen my teacher”, they always hear that “the teacher gave me low mark and the teacher failed me and I could not pass the term”. It is a normal process because nobody wants to show his/her errors and face to face with them. “The Parable of the boiled frog” means, when we do something to somebody, we should be carefull. We should not work his/her defense mechanism and we should not open his/him eyes. We should do our job slowly.for example if we want to invade a country. We should not go there and kill all of the people. For example, we first maket hem hungry and poor,then we make the fur fly, then we wake controversy,next, we bulldoze and finally,we save them from that terrorism and we become a hero for them in this way we invaded the country.it is the logic of “the perable of the boiled frog”.  “ Today’s problems come from yesterday’s “ Solutions””. Sometimes, when we meet some difficulties,we postpone them in order to skip them and continue our way but the postponed problems or difficulties may cause new problems or difficulties to us in many ways.For example, at the high school we passed the mathemathics lessons without working or we cheated in the exam and we did not learn anything new, It was our solution to pass the class. After graduated from the high school we came the Öss Exam, there are a lot of mathematics  problem and we can not do anything to solve them because we did not learn anything about mathematics problem at the high school. We created an dangerous solution and it became a very big problem for us now.

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Öğretim Yöntemleri, En Etkili Öğretme methodları, Klasik Öğretim methodlarını yıkma (inert ideas, education methods)

Posted by Uğur Parmak on Kas 27, 2009 in Öğretmenlik

“We must beware of what I will call “inert ideas” — that is to say, ideas that are merely received into the mind without being utilised, or tested, or thrown into fresh combinations.” When we are transferring our knowledge to students we should give just the usefull knowledge. The information, which is not used, is not benefical for the students. For example, when I am explain the usage of integer numbers in computer language , I will not define what integer is. I just give the usage of integer numbers and how we use them in computers. Giving the usage of integer number is unnecessary and burden. The ingridents of lessons are not be overladen with inert ideas. Giving the information with inert ideas may be harmful. “ Do not teach too many subjects” and “ What you teach, teach thoroughly” these two sentences are really good and meaningfull. I infered in them something which will make me a better teacher. When I become a teacher, I will not try to teach everything because i know it is impossible. I will give the basic, fundamental information. For example, there are a lot of programming languages in computer. I can not teach all of them to students but if I give the logic of programming languages, they can learn whole programming languages. At the beginning, If I teach them well, they can improve yourself very well. Instead of trying to give whole information, I give the basic and necessary information to them and they become opening mind people. “ The child should experience the joy of discovery.” It means, teachers should not show everything to students directly. They should show something, which they have to teach but they should not give the whole knowledge. A teacher should give a clue about the subject and he/she should wait the students who try to discover. When they discover or find something they never forget it and the information keep in their minds until they died. The others say that education divide into the two process which are informal and formal. Informal starts at birth, unconsiously and the formal education starts at school also it is consciously. They shape according to psychologycially and socially. Students learn everything from their enviorement and their tedency.

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Maria Montessori’nin ilk öğretmenlik deneyimleri, ilk öğretmenlik tavsiyeleri, öğretmenlik zorlukları (Maria Montessori’s first education experiences, diffuculties of being teacher)

Posted by Uğur Parmak on Kas 27, 2009 in Öğretmenlik
Maria

Maria

“Her favorite times  were spent sharing with friends what she had learnd researching reports and projects on the Internet” it means, being a teacher bases on like sharing, like explaining  and like teaching. People who want to be a teacher have theese emotions, as soon as they born. “as she faced choosing a college and career, she knew exactly what she wanted to do” so, people do their job according to their tendency. Actually, they choose their jobs, when they 10-18 years old. Their hobbies or tedencies guide themselves. “ They created learning opportunities that enabled their students to apply knowledge in real teaching situations ” instead, reading boks to the students, teachers should prepare touchable, measurable, testable mediums for students and they should set students free, and they just observe their researches, expreriments , Students may discover everything which was wrote in lectures.this knowledge is easily remembered and useful. “ She noticed that each student is unique.” It is the biggest challenge which teachers can not discover easily. There are a lot of teaching methods. Teachers should follow different for each student. When they failed in a method, they should change the method and try another. After some tests , they will find the right teaching method.For Example, i will be a teacher, at that times, there will be a subject such as programming. I will show the subjects on blackboard. If i take a question about this subject, i will change my method.Next, i will make the program on my computer and i show the whole program them, if i take question again about this subject, i will bring a projection apparatus in class and i will show how this programme do. “ She began to beter juggle and balance the competing demands between individuals and groups, between curriculum goals and student iterests…” Maria did it because authorities who prepared the curriculum can not know what students what to do. They should prepare a changeable curriculum. It means they should give a basic curriculum to teachers and they should wait the teachers’ points of view which come from students. When teachers announce the curriculum to students, they may like it or not. Then they give an alternative curriculum to teacher according to their interests or tedencies. It is more benefical than the classical-given-curriculum. Teachers, from different subjects areas, should come together and they should make meetings about the teaching strategies, students’needs, how they teach better … They should help with each other about curriculum and the subjects. They should give different views and discussion topics in order to teach well.

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Yazılı ve Görsel Medyanın Görüneninden Fazlası, Sansür ve Çıkarlar

Posted by Uğur Parmak on Eki 29, 2009 in Eğitim & Öğretim

MEDYANIN GÖRÜNENİNDEN FAZLASI

Medya kurumlarının işleyişleri, muazzam parasal temelleri (ve kârları)’nın genel bir sonucu, büyük bir güce sahip olmalarıdır. Medya ilgilendiği herşeyi kaçınılmaz olarak dönüşüme uğratır. Tamda bizle yani izleyici ile kullandıkları özgün materyal arasına girerler. Bu su götürmez, aşikar bir gerçektir. Ekranda ya da sayfada görünen gerçek değildir; fakat onun yorumlanmış biçimidir. “Sadece savaş gibi olayların paketlenip haberlerde tüketilmesi için sunulmasından bahsetmiyorum. Aynı şey, örneğin öyküler için de geçerlidir. Bu, teledramada olduğu gibi, bazen çok açıktır. Stella Gibbons’un yazdığı  Cold Comfort Farm isimli öykü gerçekte televizyonun taleplerini karşılamak için değiştirilmiştir. Ancak, örneğin komedide bile, bitmiş versiyon ile özgün senaryo aynı değildir. Bu, diğer şeylerle beraber, yönetilen ve kurgulanan bir gösteridir.
            Sonuç olarak, medya elini sürdüğü herşeyi dolayımlar. Örneğin diplomatik görüşmelerle ilgili bir makalede birçok gerçekten bahsediliyor olması bütün gerçeğin bu olduğu anlamına gelmez. Makaleyi okumak orada olmakla aynı şey değildir. Yani tartışılması gerek asıl soru dolayımın derecesi, bunun nasıl olduğu ve bizim belirli bir örneğin anlamını anlamamızı nasıl etklieyebileceğidir.
            Dolayımlama fikri bize bütün medya materyallerinin gerçekte temsil edilmiş olduğunu hatırlatmalıdır. Yani kurulmuştur, gerçek olan değildir. Özgün kavram, özgün deneyim, özgün nesne değildir. Yapaydır. Gösterge kümeleriyle kurulmuş bir şeydir. Bir gerilim filminde ya da araba sergisiyle ilgili bir programda olsun, arabanın televizyondaki görüntüsü ile arabanın kendisi aynı şey değildir. Arabanın bir resim koduyla temsil edilmesidir. Aynı şekilde, bir gazetecinin araba sergisindeki arabalarla ilgili makalesi, arabaların yazılmış sözlü kod yoluyla temsil edilmesidir. Gerçek yaşam ile yapay ortam arasındaki bu ayrım hayatidir. Özellikle resimli medya ile ilgilenirken “gerçek” gibi görünen resmin, gerçeğin sadece bir versiyonu olduğunu, bir taraf tutma içerdiğini unutma eğilimindeyizdir.”(Sayfa,72)
            Medyanın toplumun okuduğu haberler ve medya üzerindeki bir diğer etkisi de getirdiği sınırlamalardır. “Sınırlama kavramı zaptetme ve alıkoyma ile ilintilidir. Sahip olduğumuz medya mülkiyetini incelerken bunun bir parçası olarak sınırlamaları da dikkate almalıyız. Medya kurumlarının istediklerini yapmalarının sınırları söz ettiğimiz kurumların biçimini etkileyecektir. Bunlar, böyle sınırlamalar olmadığında ortaya çıkabilecek kurumlarla aynı değildir.
            Genel olarak, sınırlamalar gönüllü ya da zorla kabul ettirilmiş ve dahili ya da harici olarak tanımlanabilir. Gönüllü dahili sınırlamalar, yayıncılıkta işlemleri yönlendirmek için kullanılan uygulama prensiplerini içerecektir. Zorla kabul ettirilmiş harici sınırlamalar, uyguladığı D-uyarısı sistemi ile hükümetin “kamu yararına karşı” olduğunu düşündüğü konuların işlenmesini engellemeye çalışmasını içerecektir (böyle bir uyarıya rağmen bir şey basan ya da yayınlayan olursa Resmi Sırlar Yasası devreye girmek için bekler). İfade özgürlüğüne ve bireysel haklara inanan bir kültürde, medya işlemleri üzerinde göreli olarak çok az sayıda resmi ve harici sınırlama görmek şaşırtıcı değildir.”(Sayfa,74)
            Aslında medya ya genel olarak baktığımızda medya büyük çoğunlukla kendi kendini yönetiyor diyebiliriz.Bu yönetimde medya içeriğinde olması ve olmaması gerektiğini kendi belirliyor ve adına sansür diyor. “Sansürün, genellikle doğrudan kaldırma, kısmi kaldırma, ya da sansürcüyü rahatsız eden materyalin değiştirilmesi ile ilgili olduğu düşünülür. Sansürcü eylem ve kararlarını zorla kabul ettirme gücüne sahiptir. Yeni kurulan Yayın Konseyi hariç, gerçekte medya üzerinde doğrudan bir sansür yoktur. Sansür daha çok kendi kendini yöneten organlar tarafından uygulanır. Bunlar hükümete ya da topluma arşı doğrudan sorumlu değildir. Bununla beraber, belili bazı harici ve doğrudan sansür örnekleri olduğunu hatırlamakta yarar var. Bunlar, İçişleri Bakanlığı tarafından, Meclisin çıkardığı yasaların kullanılması a da eski bir yasada yapılan değişiklikler yoluyla uygulanır. Bu uygulamanın en son örneği, İrlandalı Sinn Fein kuruluşu üyelerinin ses kayıtlarının yayınlanmaması ya da onlarla yapılan söyleşilerin ekrana çıkarılmaması hakkındaki bir koşuldur. Hükümet böyle bir yayının Sinn Fein’in “tanıtımı için oksijen” sağlayacağı ve bunun da toplumun yararına olmayacağı düşüncesindedir. Tabii ki aralarında birçok yayıncının da bulunduğu bir grup insan bundan pek memnun değil; çünkü onlara göre bu, ifade özgürlüğüne ve toplumun “bilme hakkı”na karşı çalışan bir durumdur.
            Sonuç olarak, sansür temelde dahilidir ve gücü çok çeşitlidir. İngiliz Film Sansür Kurulu filmlere sahip olmadan gösterime çıkamayacakları ir ruhsat verir. Ayrıca hangi yaş grubunun hangi filmleri seyredebileceğine de karar verir. Bu kontrol epeyce güçlüdür. İzleyiciye ulaşmadan iletişimi kesebilir. Öte yandan, basın Konseyi’nin böyle bir gücü yoktur. Sadece materyal basıldıktan sonra hakkında gelen şikayetler üzerine fikirlerini açıklar. Hiçbir  gazeteyi bir şey yapmaya zorlayacak gücü yoktur. Ticari yayınları düzenleyen IBA bu iki örneğin arasında bir yerdedir. Resmi olarak bağımsızdır; çünkü, şirketler bu organı finanse eder anca yine de şirketlerin hiçbiri ona sahip değildir. Büyük şirketlerle programlar hakkında tartışır, programların çoğunun IBA yönetmelikleri çerçevesinde yapacaklarına güvenir; ancak aynı amanda materyalin kalitesini denetler. İzleme Komitesi, IBA yöneticilerine bazı programların yayınlanmaması tavsiyesinde bulunursa, bu talebi yerine getirir.
            Sansürü anlamada karşımıza çıkan bir başka sorun ise tutarsızlıktır. Resmi Sıralar Yasasını’nı ele alırsak, 1980’lerde meydana gelen ve sonuçları birbirinden çok farklı olan iki ünlü olay karşımıza çıkar. Her iki olayda da kamu görevlileri bilgi sızdırma suçundan mahkemeye çıkarıldılar. Yani burada doğrudan değil sadece dolaylı sansürden ve bu olayların sonuçlarının medyanın başka bir zamanda aldığı üretim kararlarını nasıl etkileyeceğinden söz ediyoruz işte bu nedenle sansür yerine sınırlamalardan bahsetmek daha kolay ve doğru olacaktır.1984’te Sarah Tisdall, Savunma Bakanı’nın Amerikan Savaş Gemisinin gelişi ile ilgili, çok geç olana dek meclisi aldatmaya çalıştığı iddiaları hakkındaki bilgileri sızdırmak suçundan cezaevine göndermek istediği bir davada aklandı.”(Sayfa,78)
            Sonuç olarak medya iletişiminde bir tür sansür vardır. Ancak bu sözcüğün ifade ettiği gibi, her bir konunun onaydan geçmesini gerektiren merkezileşmiş bir oluşumla işlememektedir.
            Birazda bu koca medyanın işlevlerinden farklı bakış açılarıyla bahsedelim. “İşlev” sözcüğü, medyanın ne yapması gerektiği, gerçekte ne yaptığı ve amaçlarının ne olarak göründüğünü konularını kapsar. Örneğin bir iş bulma kurumunun işlevini insanlara tavsiyelerde bulunmaktır. Medyanın işlevlerinin ne olması gerektiği hakkında kendi görüşleri vardır. Tabii ki bunlar genel olarak onlar tarafından olumlu bir biçimde görülecektir. Örneğin yayıncılığı düzenleyen çeşitli Televizyon Yasaları bir haber bilgi servisinin oluşturulmasını, İngiliz materyalinin miktarının korunmasını, tarafsızlığa uyulmasını ve bunun gibi şeyleri yerine getirme zorunluluklarına işaret eder. Ancak pratikte herşey biraz daha değişik olabilir. Sonuç olarak medyanın işlevleri nelerdir ?
   Eğlence işlevleri: medya, izleyicisini eğlendirir ve oyalar. Bu işlev izleyiciye sağlıklı bir eğlence ve zevk sunar ve gene bu işlev izleyicinin dikkatini önemli toplumsal konulardan ve eşitsizliklerden başka yöne çevirir.
   Enformasyon işlevleri: medya izleyiciye dünya hakkındaki gerekli bilgileri sağlar. Bu işlev, dünyanın coğrafi, toplumsal ve politik haritasını çıkarmanıza yardım eder ve gene bu işlev, dünyaya ilişkin belirli bir kakış açısı oluşturur ve izleyiciyi EDİLGEN kılar.
   Kültürsel işlevleri: Medya, kültürümüzü yansıtan materyalleri sağlar ve onun bir parçası haline getirir. Bu materyal, kültürümüzü sürdürür ve yansıtır, bu da kültüre süreklilik sağlar. Bu materyal, alt kültürlerin çeşitliliği pahasına kitle kültürünü geliştirir. Bu materyal, kültürel anlamda statükoyu korur ve aynı zamanda değişim ve büyümeyi engelleyebilir.
   Toplumsal işlevleri: medya, toplumumuzdan ve toplumsal grupların çatışmasından örnekler sunar. Bu örnekler bizi, toplumun üyeleri olarak başarılı bir şekilde hareket etmemizi sağlayan inançlar ve ilişkiler yoluyla toplumsallaştırır. Bu örnekler bizi topluma tek bir bakış açısını doğal hale getiren ve alternatif açılar geliştirmemizi ve ona göre davranmamızı engelleyen inançlar ve ilişkiler yoluyla toplumsallaştırır. Bu örnekler karşılıklı ilişki denilen bir çeşit işlev sağlar, bizim için bir olayı diğeriyle ilişkilendirir; olayları bir araya getirir ve toplumun ne olduğu ve ne anlama geldiği hakkında bir anlayış yaratır.
  Politik işlevler: medya, politik olaylar, konular ve çalışmalara tanıklık eder. Bu tanıklık, toplumumuzdaki politikacıların çalışmalarını almamızı ve bu politik süreçte aha yapıcı bir şekilde çalışmamızı sağlar. Bu tanıklık, politik sürece katıldığımız yanılsamasını yaratır; ancak gerçekte yanlarımızı sorgusuz bir şekilde düzenleyen otoriteyi destekler. Medya, kamuoyunu yönlendirme yetisinde sahiptir, yani toplumun düşünmediği bir konuyu ortaya atabilir ve bu konulara bir bakış açısı önerebilir. Medya, bu yolla politik olaylar ve konular hakkındaki düşünceleri şekillendirme yetisine sahiptir. Özellikle savaş zamanlarında (örneğin fakland savaşında) medya, propagandanın politik işlevlerini yerine getirir ve bunun tek nedeni de hükümetin bilgi kaynaklarını kontrol etmesi değildir.
            Şimdi medyanın bir alt kolu olan ve günlük hayatta dünyanın heryerindeki insanların bir şekilde görsel yada yazınsal bir şekilde aldığı okuduğu takip ettiği haberleri ele alalım.Haberleri anlamlandırmak çok önemlidir. “Anlamların haber materyaline nasıl yerleştirildiğini açıklamak için bazı başka kavramları da tanıtıyor. Medya çalışmalarında haberlere bu kadar büyük önem verilmesinin nedeni, coğrafyasından politikasına dünya hakkındaki enformasyonun ana kaynağı olmasıdır. Çoğu insan haber makinesine ve onun bize anlattıklarına güvenir. Haberlere sıklıkla, gerçekte sahip olmadığı ve doğal olarak sahip olması da beklenemeyen tarafsızlık ve otorite özellikleri bağışlanır. Aşağıdaki fikirler haberlerin gizeminin ortadan kaldırılmasına yardım edecektir. Haber materyalinin medya iletişiminin bir parçası olarak görülmesinin en önemli nedeni, her hangi bir diğer ürün gibi her gün alınıp satılmasıdır. Bu gibi haberlerin nereden geldiği sorusuna götürür.
            Haber toplama terimi genellikle haberlerin üretiminin ilk aşamasını tanımlamak için kullanılır. Haberlerin bir meyve gibi, toplanıp, ayıklanıp, izleyici için paketlenmeyi beklediğini ima eder. Ancak haber eksiksiz ve tamamen şekillendirilmiş bir şey değildir, o yaratılır. Hatta çoğu zaman, popüler olarak kabul edildiği gibi, muhabir tarafından “toplanmaz”. Materyalin çok büyük bir kısmı basında Associated Press ve televizyonda Visnews ya da UPITN gibi ajanslardan elde edilir. Materyal için para ödenir. Benzer bir şekilde, Avrupa’daki televizyon haberleri çalışmalarını her sabah konuların alınıp satıldığı bir link hattı aracılığıyla yürütür. Haberler muhabirler tarafından elde ediliyor olsa bile işin büyük bölümü belirli bir düzene göre yapılır; her zamanki kaynaklara başvurulur, sadece hükümetin değil çoğu kuruluşlun vitrinini oluşturan bası sözcüleri ve basın toplantıları takip edilir.
            Haber kuruluşları haberleri şekillendiren konulardan bir gündem oluşturur. Bu da, bir kez daha haberlerin “dışarıdan bir yerden” gelen doğru olayların ve gerçeklerin bir toplamı olduğu fikrini yalanlar. Yazı işleri müdürleri haberleri seçer, bu bizim o gün ya da hafta dünyada neyin önemli olduğuna dair bakış açımızı belirler. Yazı işleri müdürleri kendileri için önemli olan konuların neler olduğunu saptar. Yayıncılıkta konuların akış sırasının ne olacağına karar verdikleri toplantılar yapılır. Konular ayıklanır.
            Habercilik değerleri, haberleri yapanların bazı konuların haber değeri olduğunu düşünmesine ve bu konuların sunuluş biçimine bağlıdır.
   Genel Değerler
Olumsuzluk: haber makinesi genel olarak kötü haberlerin dramatik etkisine değer verir. Kötü haber iyi haberdir. Borsada hızlı bir düşüş yaşanması ya da ölümlerin olduğu bir kaza gibi olaylar, oturmuş bir piyasadan ya da mükemmel güvenlik verilerinden daha değerlidir.
Eve yakınlık: haber üreticisinin kültürüne ve coğrafyasına en yakın olan haberler en değerlilerdir. Yani, manş denizinde batan bir yat eğer Fransız ise ilgilenilmeyebilir anca İngiliz ise büyük bir olasılıkla haberlerde çıkacaktır.
Yakın zamanda meydana gelmek: yakın zamanlarda meydana gelen olaylar daha öncekilerden değerlidir, bu nedenler gazeteciler arasında birbirini atlatmak ya da bir habere daha önce ulaşmak için yarış vardır. Bu değer toplum bilincine çok iyi yansıtılmıştır; insanlar bütün haberlerin çok taze olduğuna inanır. Bu çok ilginçtir çünkü sunulan olayların sadece önemlileri yakın zamanlarda meydana gelmiştir. Daha önemsiz konular bir iki günlüktür. Bu değer , bir başkasıyla çelişki içindedir.
   Revaçta olma: bir öykü haberlerin gündemine alındıysa bununla ilgili gelecek olan diğer ayrıntı da değerli sayılır, bunun esas nedeni izleyicinin zaten bununla ilgili bir şeyler “bilmesi”dir. Sonuç olarak, günlerce, haftalarca devam eden konular çok da yeni değildir
   Devamlılık: Özgün öykü ortaya çıktığında devamının geleceği açıkça belli olan konular değerlidir. İsyanlar yada savaşlar gibi konularla ilgilenmek çekicidir; çünkü sonuçta bu, devam eden bir drama haline gelecektir.
   Basitlik: basitçe açıklanabilecek konular açıklanması çok karmaşık olabileceklerden daha fazla yeğlenir. Özellikle popüler basın, ödemeler dengesi gibi zor bir sorundan çok, basit bir öykü olan terörist bir saldırıyı yeğleyecektir.
   Kişisellik: toplumca tanınan bir kişiyle ilgili olaylar ya da bir insanla ilişkilendirebilecek öyküler diğerlerinden daha değerlidir; çünkü bunlar kendiliğinden insanla ilgili bakış açısı denilen şeye uygundur.”(Sayfa,136)
            Bütün bu genel değerler bazı öykülerin diğerleri arasından bir seçilmesine yarayacak özellikleri olduğunu gösterir. Bu bakımdan haber üretme sürecinde bir taraf tutma oluşmuştur. Tüm bu kişisel faktörlerin yanı sıra teknolojinin etkisinde medya üzerinde oldukça fazladır. “Teknoloji, haber iletilerine çeşitli yollarla katkıda bulunur. Video bant ve uydu yayınlarının elektronik haber toplama yoluyla haber merkezinde birleştirilmesi kolaylığı, güncel haber üzerindeki vurguyu artırdı. Bu, aynı zamanda televizyon örneğinde görüntülerin değeri üzerindeki vurgunun çoğalması anlamına gelir. İzleyici güncel görüntüler görmeyi bekler. Haberciler en yeni görüntü ve sahneleri göstermek için çok çaba harcar. Beyrut’taki çatışmalar hakkındaki çok yeni görüntüler program devam ederken ulaştığında akış düzeni bu görüntüleri göstermek için değiştirildi.ancak bu, gerçekte neler olduğu ve niçin olduğu hakkında bildiklerimize çok az katkıda bulunda. Sadece programın daha canlı görünmesini sağladı. Elektronik göstergelerin, grafiklerin ve altyazıların kullanımı televizyondaki görsel vurguyu ve drama hissini artırdı
            Gazetelerde materyalin elektronik olarak birleştirilmesi daha güncel olmalarını sağladı; çünkü sayfa düzenini değiştirmek göreli olarak kolaylaştı. Bununla beraber, gazeteler, paketlenmek ve fiziksel olarak izleyiciye ulaştırılmak zorunda olduğundan, hiçbir zaman televizyon yayıncılığının dolaysızlığını yakalayamayacak.
            Haberlerle ilgili ana fikirler üzerindeki bu yorumlar, iletişimin nasıl oluşturulduğu hakkında bazı şeyleri açığa vurur. Aynı zamanda, haberlerin görünürdeki tarafsızlığının aslında bir yanılsama olduğuna dikkati çeker.” (Sayfa,144)
            Sonuç olarak görsel, yazınsal, resimsel, v.b.. basının toplumun gündemi ve bu gündem hakkındaki toplumun görüşleri üzerinde çok büyük bir etkisi vardır.Bazı yayın kuruluşlarından alınan bu haberler, bilgiler, enformasyonlar seyirciye, izleyiciye, dinleyiciye ulaşmadan önce çeşitli filtrelemelere maruz kalırlar. Bunlar kanal, kuruluş ve medya organlarının çıkarları doğrultusunda şekillendirilip değer kazandırılır. Biz haberleri alan olarak sadece bu haberin şekillendirilmiş hallerini görürüz ve medyaya olan güvenimizden dolayı kabul ederiz. Medya organları, haberlerde halkı, okuyucuyu istedikleri yöne kanalize etmek için uğraşırlar ve yıllardır bunu başarmışlardır. Biz okuyucular olarak yapmamız gereken, olaylara, haberlere güvenimizi sarsmadan biraz daha eleştirel bir şekilde yaklaşmamız, verileni direk kabul etmememiz önce kendi yorumlarımızı yapıp, sebep-sonuç ilişkilerini nedensellik kavramında birleştirip daha sonra medya’nın verdiği yorumlarla karşılaştırmalıyız.

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